Jiang Xidong: The development level of productivity in the Song Dynasty

Summary: To explore the development and change of social history, you should first graduate the foundation of the development of the biological power. There are at least 45 production technology and production objects and production tools in the Song Dynasty, of which at least 15 are agricultural and at least 30 handicrafts. The overall development level of productivity in the Song Dynasty exceeded the previous generation, but there were many limitations. There are 7 bottlenecks that restrict the further development of the Song Dynasty's productivity. During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, only two agricultural technology and thermal weapons surpassed the Song Dynasty, and the remaining 5 items did not make major breakthroughs. Although the Ming and Qing Dynasties surpassed the total productivity and technical, especially in the introduction of planting crops, because the production tools did not break through, or even retreating in important tools, the population increased, resulting in the per capita productivity and development quality lower than that of the Song Dynasty. The whole society is stagnant and conservative. Compared with the previous dynasties or the later Ming and Qing dynasties, the level of productivity development in the Song Dynasty was the highest peak. The development of society in the Song Dynasty, the stagnation of the Ming and Qing dynasties, and the rise of Europe, the first reason was the level of productivity development.

Keywords: the level of productivity development in the Song Dynasty

Author Jiang Xidong, Professor of Song History Research Center of Hebei University (Baoding 071002).

Source: "Chinese Social Sciences" 2022, No. 7 P95 -P112

Editor in charge: Zhang Yunhua

The Song Dynasty was a dynasty in ancient Chinese society after the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period. In this regard, there are many discussions in the historical circles and put forward a variety of assertions. Among them, the most famous of which are "theory of the Tang and Song Dynasties", but most of their arguments have ignored the foundation of productivity. Lishi has a pioneering and systematic research on the productivity of the Song Dynasty, and has made a special discussion about the level and status of the productivity of the Song Dynasty in ancient China. It is believed that the Song Dynasty was the highest peak, but the comparison of the previous generation and the limitations of the Song Dynasty left a lot of discussions. The seminar space needs to be made up. Zeng Xiongsheng has a more comprehensive and more detailed exposition of the development and limitations of the agricultural productivity of the Song Dynasty, and believes that the agriculture of the Song Dynasty was the highest peak. Fang Xing has a lot of research discussions on the Qing Dynasty economy (including productivity), and does not agree with the "Peak theory of the Song Dynasty". He believes that the Qing Dynasty (before 1840) was the highest peak, but compared with the Song Dynasty not enough. Xu Dixin and Wu Chengming have comprehensive and in -depth expositions on the productivity of the Ming and Qing Dynasties when studying the sprouting of Chinese capitalism. They also pay attention to comparing with the Song Dynasty, but there is no concentrated overall comparison and judgment. The current two representative "The History of China Economic" is actually the compilation of the study of the study, and the lack of consistent comparison. Science and technology are primary productive forces. The scientific and technological historical world has published a wealth of research results. The masterpiece of Juncheng is the "History of Chinese Science and Technology" edited by Li Joseph and the "History of Chinese Science and Technology" edited by Lu Jiaxi. On the basis of predecessors, this article focuses on the three issues of new development, limitations, and levels of productivity in the Song Dynasty. This article believes that the history of the development of ancient productivity should be based on the three elements of the production technology, production objects and production tools of workers, and take care of others. Among them, production tools are the most important. Because this issue involves a wide range of scope, this article cannot be huge, and can only be discussed. For the sake of misunderstanding, please criticize and correct it.

1. The development and limitations of agricultural productivity in the Song Dynasty

The development of agriculture in the Song Dynasty is mainly manifested in the following aspects:

(1) Improvement of production technology and expansion of production objects

The population of the pre -Qin period in China is rare for the lack of statistics; in the Han Dynasty, the highest reached about 60 million; the Wei, Jin and Southern Dynasties fell by about half due to long -term war; the heyday of the Tang Dynasty reached about 80 million; the Northern Song Dynasty in the Northern Song Dynasty; the Northern Song Dynasty In the last period (early 12th century), it exceeded the 100 million mark for the first time; after the demise of the Northern Song Dynasty, it decreased due to the large war, and it exceeded 100 million again in the middle and late Ming Dynasty. By 1840, it increased to about 400 million. In ancient times, the growth and a variety of population were the result of superior natural conditions, and the main is the result of overall productivity, especially the development of food production.

In addition to the population, it also depends on the quality of the laborer's cultural and educational quality. There were about 110,000 people who passed the imperial examinations such as the imperial examinations (including the "special name", including the "special name" gifts, etc.). At present, more than 40,000 candidates can be tested. The number of people participating at all levels is hundreds of times more. The literacy rate and cultural quality of farmers have also greatly improved. Although Yue Fei was born in a farmer, he had the opportunity to practice bow guns and read literacy since he was a child. Judging from a cliff stone carving found in Luquan District, Shijiazhuang City, Hebei Province, shepherds in the mountains also have capable writing people. The level of cultural and educational in the countryside is higher than the north. For example, the Jianzhou Jianzhou, Fujian Road, "Ten Readers and Five Sixth Readers", and Shao Wujun's "all the villages to the villages are professors."

From the Xia, Shang and Zhou dynasties in ancient China to the Northern and Southern Dynasties, the developed areas of agriculture were mainly in the Yellow River Basin. By the Tang and Song dynasties, the Yangtze River Basin rose strongly. Some scholars at home and abroad are called the "Green Revolution" and "Agricultural Revolution" in the Song Dynasty, mainly in the Yangtze River Basin.

1. The development of grain crop production technology. The grain crops in the Yangtze River Basin of the Song Dynasty were mainly rice, followed by wheat. The development of its production technology is mainly manifested in the following 6 aspects: (1) There are many unprecedented and elected improvements of rice varieties. There are at least 46 rice varieties in Xichang County (now Taihe County, Jiangxi Province), of which 21 rice japonica rice (13 early rice, 8 late rice), and 25 glutinous rice (11 early glutinous rice, 14 late glutinous). There are 212 rice varieties recorded in the south alone in the south of the Song Dynasty, which is nearly 16 times compared to the 13 rice varieties in the south recorded in the Western Jin Dynasty. The 13 varieties recorded in the Western Jin Dynasty are early rice. "During the Tang and Song dynasties, different types of early, middle and late rice were formed." The promotion of "occupying and high -yielding of drought -resistant precocious" city of rice "has a extensive positive impact on the production of rice in all dry land in the south and north; The promotion of "yellow rice rice" has a great positive impact on the production of southern rice. In the Song Dynasty, "this agricultural revolution, precocious rice played a main role." The increase in rice varieties is mainly the result of artificial selection and active optimization of farmers. The production of rice is about double the output of millet. (2) Advances of land reclamation and cultivation technology. The invention and promotion of the "Jiangdong Plow" in the south of the Tang Dynasty and the "Pie Dao" and "Iron" in the Song Dynasty solved the difficulties of land reclamation and farming in the south, and made the southern low humidity and hills. The most common technology of land reclamation in the northern part of the Han Dynasty is to use the "two cows lift bars" of Changzhiya plow. Generally, two cows and one to two people are needed. The "Jiangdong Plow" (Qu Yizhi), which was invented in the Tang and Song dynasties, generally only needed a cow and one person when reclaiming and farming, and the labor productivity was greatly improved. (3) The huge progress of planting technology. The Tang and Song dynasties were mainly sowing to waste seeds. The Tang and Song dynasties began to be popular transplanted and pawn, setting up, and saving seeds; the reproduction index was significantly improved. Cooked -Two works. The Song Dynasty's "rice and wheat reproduction" has developed significantly. (4) Revision of the management of China Geng and Fields. In this regard, the southern progress is obvious, especially the promotion of "Putian", "terraced field", "grilled fields" and advanced water conservancy appliances, so that farmland water preservation, watering and drainage have been unprecedentedly improved. (5) The huge improvement of fertilizer and fertilizer technology. "In addition to the green fertilizer," Qimin Yao Shu ", which reflects the agricultural production of the Yellow River Basin in the sixth century, rarely talks about the fertilization of Daidian, and the" Book of Agricultural Books ", which reflects the agricultural production of Jiangnan in the Southern Song Dynasty, emphasizes the importance of fertilization everywhere. Whether it is rice seedling fields , Winter -made wheat fields, or land to plant mulberry and maruro. The fertilization method has base fertilizer, planting fertilizer and topdressing. The types of fertilizer also increased. "The" Book of Agricultural Books "in the Song Dynasty proposed the concept of the traditional" multi -dung fields "concept for the first time in the Song Dynasty. Criticism and correction point out that the use of dung is like medication, which should "get it" and reasonably apply fertilizer, "becoming a major development in the history of China's fertilizer technology." (6) From "fire farming" to fine cultivation. Prior to the Tang and Song dynasties, most of the rice planting technology in the Yangtze River Basin also stayed in the extensive business stage of "fire farming". This model mainly relies on natural forces, simple and extensive, and the biggest disadvantage is that the land utilization rate is low. During the Tang and Song dynasties, a fine cultivation model was formed, and there were more manpower. The biggest advantage was the high land utilization rate. 2. The development of economic crop production technology. The planting and production technology of bamboo, vegetables, fruits, fruit, sugar cane, flowers, and medicinal materials in the Song Dynasty has made significant progress. Among them, the most important and most noteworthy is the huge development of tea tree planting technology. Judging from Han Hubei's "Four Osh", the tea planting technology has matured in the Tang Dynasty. The development of the Song Dynasty was reflected in the rapid growth of the number of tea planting areas. There were more than 30 tea states and counties recorded in the "Tea Saint" Lu Yu's "Tea Saint", and more than 30 in the Northern Song Dynasty. In addition, cotton cultivation technology expanded from Lingnan and Xinjiang to the Yangtze River and the Yellow River Basin during the Song Dynasty.

3. Development of animal husbandry. Compared with the previous generation, the animal husbandry of the Song Dynasty was shrinking. The Northern Song Dynasty needs to enter a large number of edible sheep from the Khitan Liao Kingdom; the bull -breeding industry in the Yellow River Basin and the Yangtze River Basin is obviously in short supply and needs to be entered from other regions. ; Both Songs need to enter the horses from ethnic minorities. Traditional pig farming, chicken farming, donkey industry, etc. are more developed and should exceed the previous generation. The development of Liaoning Gold and Mongolia's animal husbandry has significantly exceeded the Central Plains in the Mainland. Especially the Mongolian horse raising technology is very advanced.

4. Increase agricultural books. According to statistics from Zeng Xiongsheng: "From the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period to the Tang Dynasty, there were more than 30 kinds of agricultural books in nearly 1400 years, and more than 300 years of the Song and Yuan Dynasties had more than 140 kinds of farm books." From the perspective, farmers and scholars during the Song and Yuan Dynasties in the long -term practice, the level of analysis and understanding of soil, climate, fertilizer, rice, mulberry, economic forests, vegetables, flowers, and agricultural tools has significantly surpassed the previous dynasties.

5. Expansion of production objects. In a long primitive society, human production objects are mainly plants and animals in nature. They are picking the economy and fishing and hunting economy, and later created the planting economy; it also domesticated animals and developed aquaculture. Compared with previous, the production objects of agriculture during the Tang and Song dynasties have newly changed in terms of types, breadth and depth. First, large -scale expansion from the northern loess and dry land to the south wetland and mountainous areas. Before 755 "Anshi Rebellion", most of China's population was distributed in the north, and the southern population has surpassed the north. In other words, more than 3,000 years before the Tang Dynasty, the labor production targets of ancient Chinese farmers were mainly loess and drought land. Starting from the middle of the Tang Dynasty, it was mainly the clay wetland in the south, and it entered the beach and the hills and hills. This is first of all the products that are more contradictory, that is, Wang Yan said, "Tian is exhausted, and the ground is all over the mountains." Second, the type and planting range of crops have been significantly expanded. The "types of crops have increased in the Song Dynasty, the buckwheat and crickets (ie sorghum) of them, and the rapeseed in oil crops are new types in this period." During the Tang and Song dynasties, some new crops were introduced from overseas. The most prominent expansion in the north is from planting millet to categoria and cities. The most prominent expansion in the south is tea trees, wheat, rapeseed and cotton planting. Forests, vegetables, medicinal materials, and flowers have developed huge development. (2) The development of agricultural production tools

The development of ancient agricultural production tools first depends on its material, followed by its structure and type.

1. Material. The production tools of the primitive society are mainly stone artifacts (old stone artifacts, grinding new stone artifacts), and bamboo wood, boneware, and mussels. The logo of the labor tool during the Spring and Autumn Period of the Xia, Shang and Western Zhou Dynasty was bronze (plus stone, bamboo and wood, and boneware, and began to appear in the late Western Zhou Dynasty). During the Spring and Autumn Period, the iron ware began to be promoted, and in the Warring States Period and Qin and Han dynasties entered the iron era. In the iron age, stone and bamboo and wood are still inseparable. From the Warring States Period to the Wei, Jin and Northern and Southern Dynasties, 80%of the material of the iron agriculturalware was tough cast iron (or forged cast iron); the beginning of the Tang and Song dynasties, the mainstream of the "steel blade cooked iron", the toughness and sharpness were greatly improved.

2. Structure and type. The agricultural tools of the primitive society are mainly stone cutters with simple structure and bow and arrows for hunting; many copper farmers appeared in the Bronze era of the Xia, Shang and Zhou dynasties, such as ax, sickle, 镢, hoe, knife, etc. The representative agricultural tools are 耒耜; In the Qin and Han dynasties of the Warring States Period, the types of farm tools further increased. The most advanced and important farming agricultural tools were iron plows and cattle. The early stone plows, bronze plows, and iron plows, their plows are generally V -shaped, which can only be opened. In the late Western Han Dynasty and the Eastern Han Dynasty, the plowing wall, plow bed, and plow arrows could be overwhelmed to one or both sides. The depths can be adjusted. In the Tang and Song dynasties, the northern drought farmland also developed: improved or newly invented the plow, plows, plow mirrors and heads of reclaimed land, and the "manure" combined with sowing and fertilization. Macaron (long sickle), wheat bronze, wheat cage, etc. Liaoning Golden Agricultural tools are basically the same as the north of the Song Dynasty. In particular, the Yangtze River Basin, the development of the paddy field farm tools is the most significant and rapid, and it is series and mature. The most significant invention is the "Jiangdongli" of the Tang Dynasty, and it is a more advanced "Qu Yizi plow" than the "straight plow" since the Han and Wei dynasties. It operates flexible, the quality and efficiency of cultivation are higher, and it is promoted to the north. The Song Dynasty was invented and installed with a "plow knife", which greatly improved its reclamation efficiency. The invention of the paddy field reclamation tools also has "iron", which is very suitable for small farmland or lack of cattle plow farmers. The entire land farmers have rakes, luster, 礰礋, 耖, Tianyang and so on. The newly invented the seedlings that have invested rice seedlings (can also be used for planting seedlings after promotion improvement). The management tools in the fields and fields include dangling, rolling shafts, Yunye claws, hoeing, shelling, etc. The water conservancy drainage and irrigation tools have developed hugely during the Tang and Song dynasties: improved the crank of the crank, the manpower flip (keel cars) were promoted, and the pseudo -vehicles, water rollover, high -rotating cars, high -rotation high -rotation and high vehicles and high -rotation cars were invented. Use animal power to roll over and tube. The Yuan Dynasty's "Wang Yan's Agricultural Book · Farmers' Map" "A total of 103 types of agricultural tools ... most of them were used, new or improved during the Song and Yuan Dynasties." It is characterized by: efficient, effort, dedicated (more refined, more specialized), perfect, and supporting, "it has become a mature stage." Li Genzhen pointed out: During the Song and Yuan dynasties, "regardless of the south and north, regardless of the drought fields, regardless of the cultivation of paddle, various agricultural tools have been fully supported. my country's traditional agricultural tools have developed to the Song and Yuan dynasties, and it has reached its peak."

(3) Limitation of the development of agricultural productivity in the Song Dynasty

From the perspective of long -term comparison, its limitations are mainly the following three aspects:

1. Agricultural technology also belongs to ancient experience. The development and progress of agricultural technology during this period is the result of the long -term production practice, personal experience, external observation, and experience accumulation of the majority of farmers. Advanced characters, such as Zeng Anzhi, Zeng Zhijin, Chen Yan, and Chen Yan who actively combined production practice and system research, are rare after all.

2. The trend of small agricultural tools. The Niu and Horse Animal Nursing Industry in the Central Plains in the Song Dynasty significantly shrank backwards. In particular, the shortage of cattle cultivation has caused the Yellow River and the Yangtze River Basin to generally have insufficient livestock. Insufficient animal power can only rely on manpower. For manpower, it is impossible for manpower to guide and promote large agricultural tools, and people can only try to develop small agricultural tools.

3. The development of agricultural productivity in the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River is slow or even local atrophy. The former Qi Lai Xia paper has discussed the imbalance of productivity development in the Song Dynasty and the huge differences between production relations and social forms caused by it. Here are the additional: due to war and floods, etc. The five generations of Song and Golden periods were slow, and many areas south of Kaifeng even long -term deserted. The problem of food production and the problem of South Grain and North Travel has become a major problem that has long restricting the survival and development of the north for a long time. 2. The development and limitations of the productivity of handicraft industry in the Song Dynasty

The productivity of the handicraft industry in the Song Dynasty has developed a more significant and stronger development. What is more prominent is the following areas:

(1) Improvement of production technology and expansion of production objects

1. Mining. (1) The number of mining locations increases. In ancient China, the theory of mining was mature during the Warring States Period, the Sui and Tang dynasties, and there was no breakthrough in the Song Dynasty. However, "the number of mining locations increased significantly compared with previous lives, which also explained the development of mining technology in the Song Dynasty to a certain extent." (2) The development of mining technology. Ancient Chinese mining technology has reached a high level in the Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods. There are four development or improvement in the Song Dynasty: First, although the "hot law" has been invented and applied to mining operations, it is clear that the documents are clearly recorded in the Southern Song Dynasty. Essence Second, the Song people "use ladder -like divestitual method in open -air mining -it shows that the technical thoughts of its open -air mining are quite close to modern times." Third, underground mining technology is more mature. The pre -Qin Dynasty has invented the well, roadway support technology, and the "well -lane joint development method" formed, including the "house pillar mining method", which is more common in the Tang and Song dynasties. The development and recovery design of mines are becoming more and more standardized. " Fourth, "in the Song Dynasty, the drilling technology of Sichuan Yanjing had a leap development" and was a major new invention.

What is impressive is the great development of the coal mining industry. On Shaanxi Road, Hedong Road, Hebei Road, Jingxi Road, Kaifengfu, Jingdong Road on the north of the Song Dynasty, there was unprecedented development in coal mining, transportation and sales, and coal. In Sichuan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsu and other places in the south, coal mining and coal use. The great development of the coal industry has a positive role in promoting the fuel crisis, especially for the porcelain -making industry and metal smelting industry. "The coke in the Tang Dynasty developed into a mature technology in the Song Dynasty," but the iron smelting fuel of the blast furnace is still mainly charcoal.

2. Metal smelting technology. There are three aspects of important progress in the Song Dynasty: (1) improvement of the smelting furnace and the promotion of wooden fan. During the Northern Song Dynasty, some officials helped the metropolis solve the problem of the smelting furnace's "smelting". When the furnace wall was built in the Song Dynasty, a variety of refractory materials had been used. The iron -made furnace with a small top and upper furnace wall is "easy to maintain heat and accelerate the reduction and melting process. This is an important creation in the furnace -building technology." "The promotion and use of the wooden box (mostly known as the wooden fan -attractor note) and the increase in air volume, and the increase in wind pressure" shows that the iron purification technology of the use of blast furnaces in the Song Dynasty has made great progress. (2) The smelting method of irrigation steel popularizes the country. The "irrigation and smelting method" invented during the Han and Jin dynasties continued to develop and promote the Sui and Tang dynasties in the Northern and Southern Dynasties. It is very noticeable that "a large number of steel blade cooked iron agricultural tools began in the Tang and Song dynasties. This is the result of the further development of frying cooked iron technology and irrigation steel smelting technology and forging technology." (3) Cold forging technology is more extensive. The invention of ancient cold forging technology in ancient China is very early. However, the great development of the Song Dynasty was mainly in ethnic minorities, and the Central Plains Mainland was more behind.

At the same time, there are some important inventions and development in the Song Dynasty. "Bald water refining method is large -scale in production; the technology and sand casting of brass formation of brass are began to be seen in records; The development of the axis is cut. "The Northern Song Hanlin medical officer Wang Wei's only presided over the casting bronze man, which is a boutique in ancient Chinese technology, especially in smelting casting products. The number of copper coins in the Northern Song Dynasty reached the highest peak in the world at that time, and it circulated a large number of.

3. Ceramic industry. Most of the porcelain during the Wei, Jin and Northern and Southern Dynasties was celadon, and the main producing areas are south, and there are not many origin and output. By the Tang and Song dynasties, there were four major development and changes: (1) The country is generally developed rapidly. The north has generally mastered porcelain -making technology and has developed very quickly. "The archeological discovery of the ceramic kiln site in the Sui Dynasty was limited to ten counties in seven provinces in Hebei, Henan, Anhui, Jiangxi, Zhejiang, Hunan, and Sichuan, and the Tang Dynasty expanded to a total of twelve provinces and 50 counties." The Song Dynasty continued to expand, especially in the north, five famous kiln mouths (Ru kiln, Jun kiln, Yaozhou kiln, Congzhou kiln, Ding kiln). (2) The north is the first to invent the manufacturing white porcelain technology, which is a major breakthrough in China's "porcelain making history", "another leap", and "new milestone". Making white porcelain requires higher raw materials control technology, which greatly reduces the iron content of porcelain. This technology and products began to appear in the late Northern Dynasties, but it was truly mature and large -scale production began in the Hebei region of the Tang and Song dynasties. (3) Color porcelain production technology has begun to mature. The development of colorful porcelain manufacturing technology in Hebei and Liao and Jinzan is particularly fast, which has a direct impact on Yuan Ming and Qing Dynasties. (4) There are huge progress in the technology of burning porcelain: First, the first creation technology created and promoted by Quyang Dingyao, Hebei in the Northern Song Dynasty (replaced the ordinary box bowl with the box with the box combination, the height of each cushion only accounts for only the height of the ordinary box bowl height One -fifth), the output is higher. The second is that coal is used as porcelain fuel in the north, and it has developed in the south Sichuan and other places. 4. Textile technology. For more than 2,000 years from the Zhou -to Yuanming to Yuanming, China's silk weaving technology has always been at the forefront of the world, and the "Silk Road" is famous. During the Tang and Song dynasties, textile technology had improved in the following three aspects: (1) Silk weaving technology has been developed rapidly in the southeast region. In the Southern Song Dynasty, the number and quality of the silk fabrics in the south of the Jiangnan began to surpass the north. modern. There are two main technical breakthroughs. One is the "silk silk" represented by Dingzhou, and the other is the light yarn represented by Mianzhou, Luzhou, and Shanzhou. Silk fabrics in the Song Dynasty generally have the characteristics of fine, dense, light, and thin, and the technical level is quite high. (2) Cotton textile technology was transmitted from Lingnan, Xinjiang to the Yangtze River and the Yellow River Basin during the Song Dynasty. During the Song and Jinyuan period, the new era of cotton textile in the Chinese textile industry was launched. (3) Mao textile technology has developed significantly in the northern and western regions.

5. Paper printing technology. "The two Hans are the stage of Chinese papermaking", and the period of rapid development is Tang and Song. The previous papermaking raw materials were mainly hemp materials, which were also used with ravioli, mulberry and vine. By the late Tang Dynasty, "bamboo paper was in the beginning of Guangdong and Zhejiang"; in the Song Dynasty, he "showed his skills and later lived up." "The emergence of bamboo paper and wheat stems and rice rods marks a new era in the history of paper ... If most of the paper in the Tang Dynasty was used for copying, most of the paper of the Song and Yuan dynasties was used for printing. New technologies are constantly appearing. The processing pattern of paper is refurbished, and many famous paper appears, which is called by later generations. "On the basis of the development of papermaking, the invented and printing of the Sui Dynasty was" major scientific invention with epoch -making significance "" Science and Technology Revolution. " The rapid development of sculpting printing was in the Song Dynasty, which also gave birth to "the most powerful leverage for creating the necessary prerequisites for spiritual development" -bi Sheng Living word printing. On the basis of the rapid development of paper printing, the Song Dynasty invented and popularized the earliest banknotes in the world.

6. Military industry technology. The military industry technology of the Song Dynasty had revolutionary inventions. (1) The earliest hot weapon invented by the Northern Song Dynasty. In the process of long -term refining fairy, Taoist priests accidentally invented gunpowder in the late Tang Dynasty. Judging from the historical materials such as "The General Extraordinary of Wu Jing", the major new breakthrough in the Song Dynasty was to use gunpowder to create the earliest thermal weapon in the world. From cold weapons to hot weapons, "an unprecedented military revolution in human history." At the end of the Tang Dynasty, the Northern Song Dynasty "sounded the first revolution in the history of military technology development". (2) The Northern Song Dynasty invented the "Fire Fire Cabinet" - "A single tube, a single troop, a dual -piston, and a hydraulic pump, which is also the earliest military spray rifle in the world." This is also an earlier composite metal machinery in ancient times. (3) New breakthroughs in remote crossbow manufacturing technology. In addition to the Northern Song Dynasty bed crossbow, it reached 1500 meters away. (4) Military production technology of ethnic minorities is developing faster. During the Song and Jin Dynasties, the best bow was Xixia Bow. The best -quality sword was "Xixia Sword". Sub -armor.

7. Shipbuilding technology and compass and compass. The ancient Chinese shipbuilding technology was in the world's first position from the Han Dynasty to the early Ming Dynasty; the Tang and Song dynasties were a period of great development, and new inventions or new improvements were in terms of rudder, mast and water compartment warehouse. The most important thing in the Song Dynasty was the application of the compass and the invention of the compass. The earliest records in the world were used in the Northern Song Dynasty to navigation. The earliest records of the water compass were the end of the Tang Dynasty.

8. Tea processing technology. From the perspective of Lu Yu's "Tea Scripture" in the Tang Dynasty, the Tang Dynasty was relatively mature. Judging from a series of tea books such as Zhao Ruluo's "Beiyuan Beiling" in the Song Dynasty, the tea processing technology of the Song Dynasty was more mature and perfect to reach the peak of ancient Chinese tea making technology.

9. Compound machinery manufacturing technology. Su Song and others host the "Water Transport Elephant Power" designed and created. Mi, 7 meters wide, clever supporting facilities use more than 200 components such as escapers, metal shafts, gears, bells, pots, and small wooden people. peak. 10. Handicraft books have increased significantly. In the relatively complete handicraft works of ancient China, in the Song Dynasty, the Song Dynasty was mainly "Zhou Li · Kao Gong Ji", "Mo Jing" and several alchemy books. During the Song and Jin dynasties, there were suddenly increased, mainly including "General Sutra", "Creating French", "Mengxi Bi Talk", "New Elephant Elephant Law", "Steeling Spectrum", "Zi Ren Heritage" and "Beishan Wine Sutra" A variety of wine books and so on. Among the 20 kinds of tea books in the Song Dynasty, it recorded and summarized handicraft technology related to tea processing and drinking. See Qin Jiushao, the Southern Song Dynasty mathematician Qin Jiushao's "Nine Chapters of Digital Books". The Yuan Dynasty's "Wang Yannong Book" concentrated records and summarized a lot of achievements in the handicraft industry manufacturing during the Song and Yuan Dynasties.

11. Expansion of production objects. First, the mineral mining is deeper. The depth of the excavation of the Song Dynasty was greatly improved, breaking through the 200 -meter mark. Second, the coal industry has a leap development. Before the Tang Dynasty, the coal industry was generally silent. From the beginning of the Tang and Song dynasties, it has developed. Third, the processing industry such as tea has risen rapidly. Not only did the handicraft industry in the south add a broad and important new object, but also the new expansion of water milling tea in the north. Fourth, unprecedented development of book printing and binding industry. Carving printing was founded in Sui and Tang dynasties. In the Song Dynasty, the book printing and binding industry began to be completely mature, developed quickly, and unprecedented in the middle of the Northern Song Dynasty. In the field of handicraft industry, a large -scale and extraordinary new industry was formed. A large amount of plants and paper products have become new deep processing objects. Fifth, chemical technology has a major breakthrough. The chemical technology of the Tang and Song dynasties has improved in many aspects. The following three areas are the following three areas: first, gunpowder. The origin of the Northern Song Dynasty was mainly Kaifeng, and the origin of the Southern Song Dynasty increased significantly. The second is "Copper Plane". Although this technology sprouted in the Han Dynasty, it was recorded and large -scale production of special works in the Song Dynasty. The third is the dye industry. In ancient China, the global porcelain -making industry was far ahead of the global porcelain industry. Zhu Cishou concluded: "The formation stage of glaze during the Shang and Zhou dynasties, the mature stage of glaze from the Han Dynasty to the Fifth Dynasties, the stage of improvement from the Song to modern times ... (Southern Song) from gray glaze to ash -glazed. It is the development process of glaze. A creative improvement. "Sixth, cotton processing technology expands to the Central Plains. Song Jinyuan expanded to the majority of the Mainland. Since then, surpassing Msis Ge Mao has become the most common objective of the textile industry. Seventh, the sugar industry has become a new industrial gate. In the Song Dynasty, Sichuan, Fujian, and Guangdong and other places had begun to make a scale, and Sichuan Suining began to appear professional production. At the beginning of the Tang and Song dynasties, the sugar industry became a new category in China's industry.

(2) Improvement and invention of production tools

First, there are a small number of new improvements and new inventions. In the Bronze era of Xia and Shang and the Western Zhou Dynasty, in addition to stone tools, the cutting and excavation tools were mainly bronze knives, crickets, chisels, pounds, axes, shovels, pupae, etc. By the Qin and Han dynasties, "iron mining tools are generally used ... there are very few copper and stone tools." During the Tang and Song dynasties, there were no major breakthroughs in the form and type of tools, but in terms of materials, it should be used more steel, ax, and knife. During the Northern Song Dynasty, the newly inventing "Zhuo Tongjing" and the "knife" of rock -cutting "knife" and the combination of bamboo and skin were unprecedentedly "most creative". In the Sui and Tang Dynasties, the Xiajing Alleyway Mine and Drainage Tools were "updated and developed" and had used wooden trailers and waterwheels, but Song and Yuan did not have new development.

Second, metal smelting tools have important new improvements. First of all, the built -up materials of the vertical furnace have developed from the previous rammed soil to stone building. "The change of the furnace type of the stones in the vertical section is richer than the rammed soil vertical furnace. The important reason is that the shear strength of the stone is much higher than the rammed soil; especially at high temperature, this feature is particularly important; this is particularly important; this is particularly important; this is particularly important; this is particularly important; this is particularly important; So that the restrictions of the stove furnace body to the corner of the furnace, the degree of freedom of the furnace design increases. "Secondly, the drums have improved greatly. The weathering tools of early smelting furnaces were the earliest manpower hair dryers. It has been adopted more and more from the Shang Dynasty. The Eastern Han Dynasty invented the "Capsule" and hydraulic fan (water row). Since the Jin Dynasty, wooden fans are likely to be used for smelting. In the Song Dynasty, the use of wooden fans is generally used to make the air volume greater and stable, and save manpower.

Third, steel blade cooked iron tools are unprecedented. From the Warring States Period to the Northern and Southern Dynasties, the forged cast iron tools made by the long -term use of raw iron softening technology are more efficient than the "iron ironmaking" forging tools, but the efficiency is worse than later steel blade hot iron tools. During the Tang and Song dynasties, a large number of steel blade cooked iron agricultural tools were promoted. For example, ax, 锨, 种, and various tools can be used for both agriculture and multiple manual industries.

Fourth, the book printing tools have a major new invention. Bi Sheng's invented live printing of the mud and its supporting tools is a new tool for invention and creation of epoch -making significance. Among them, the muddy characters inspired the later copper and lead characters.

Fifth, textile and cloth processing tools have new improvements and new inventions. In ancient China, it invented a simple original textile machine. During the Shang and Weekly, the spinning vehicle gradually replaced the spinning wheel. In the Han Dynasty, "the oblique weaving machines widely used in all parts of China. Although the structure of this weaving machine is simple and primitive, it is already the most advanced weaving machine in the world at that time. Europe will be from the 6th century AD, and Only this kind of weaving machine began to appear, and it was not promoted until the 13th century. "During the Wei and Jin dynasties, Ma Jun made important improvement and simplification of the machine. By the period of the Song and Jin dynasties, from the description of Xue Jingshi's "Zi Ren Heritage", the weaving machines were more advanced and increased, at least four types: Huaji, Terminal, Luo machine, and small cloth lying machine. A major new invention of the Song and Yuan dynasties -water -to -large spinning vehicles, which is an advanced silk linen fiber twisting vehicle. It is larger than the ingot of other spinning vehicles and has a larger car body. It uses water flow wheel drive (can also be driven by human and animal power). It is the earliest hydraulic performance machinery in the world, more than 400 years earlier than the invention of Aklai, Europe. The flower tipplane machine that woven the pattern on the textiles, and the Shang and Zhou Dynasties had appeared during the Warring States Period, and it was a waist machine and a multi -comprehensive flower tiritary machine. "When the Warring States Period was probably to the Qin and Han dynasties, it gradually developed the flower tower with the flower tower. Cut and bone needle, bronze needle, iron needle. The 8 -shaped steel scissors that have been used for a long time from the Han Dynasty were bending shaft -free shears, which was quite laborious to use. Invented by the Northern Song Dynasty and the Northern Song Dynasty, a shaft shear is an important innovation, which is more labor -saving and so far. The Northern Song Dynasty also invented the steel needle, which has also been used to this day. Sixth, the development and completeness of tea processing tools.从陆羽《茶经》的文字记载和图谱来看，唐代制茶工具至少已有灶、甑、杵臼（碓）、规（模、棬）、承（台、砧）、襜（衣）、锥 芘, 棨 (cone knife), fluttering (whip), roasting, penetration, shed (stack), wearing, educating and crushing. Judging from the records of Zhao Ruling's "Beiyuan Book", the tea making tools of the Song Dynasty, especially the "Royal Garden" tools like Fujian Beiyuan, have developed newly developed, at least increased horse squeezing, small squeezing, large squeezing, and system system. The circle of 銙 (divided into square 銙, flowers, etc.).

(3) The limitations of the development of handicraft industry productivity in the Song Dynasty

1. The most basic metal ore and coal mine mining technology and tool bottlenecks have not made breakthroughs. The Song Dynasty salt mining technology and tools were major breakthroughs, but its role and impact were locality and did not promote it to other mining industries. The two major bottlenecks that curb the development of the mining industry -the drainage and ventilation problems of underground mines, and there are no new breakthroughs in the Song Dynasty.

2. Metal machinery manufacturing in the field of industrial and agricultural production has no major breakthrough. China has created a lot of metal (bronze and iron) gears during the Qin and Han dynasties. But in general, the most important metal machinery manufacturing, in addition to the astronomical instruments of the military "iron fire cabinet", Su Song and others, for industrial and agricultural producers, have not achieved any commendable achievements.

3. The production of major military equipment in the Song Dynasty lags behind ethnic minorities. Although the Northern Song Dynasty used gunpowder to invent the thermal weapon, the shooting thermal weapon was still in the stage of bamboo and paper tube, which has not yet been popularized. The attacking performance of the swords and sword arrows, the sword arrows, the protective equipment of the sword arrows, the protective performance of the armor (such as the "" Graphy Armor ") of the swords and arrows, which is obviously better than the mainland or the Song Dynasty. At the same time, lack of war horses and good bows (the northern Song Dynasty learned to introduce Xixia's bowm technology and invented the "god arms bow". Although there was a "god arm bow", it was still behind. ) Therefore, the Song Dynasty army was in disadvantages in the war in the northern minority and long -term passive defense. In the Northern Song Dynasty officials, Tian Ting's report reported to the summer war equipment: "The skills of Chinese are not as good as a small 羌." The skills are not as good as others, which is an important reason for a basic long -term negative role.

4. The glass manufacturing that has been behind in ancient China has not improved in the Song Dynasty.

3. The development level of productivity in the Song Dynasty

It can be seen through the previous combing and inspections that at least 45 new developments in the production technology, production objects and production tools of the Song Dynasty, of which at least 15 are agricultural and at least 30 handicrafts. The development of productive forces in the Song Dynasty was more prominent and rapidly the field of manual industry. Steel -blade cooked iron tools played a general role of basic promotion.

There are still many limitations in the development of productive forces in the Song Dynasty, with 7 more prominent (3 agricultural and 4 manual industries). The mining industry does not break through drainage and ventilation bottlenecks, lacks metal machinery, and has no improvement of the glass industry. It comprehensively restricts the overall development of agriculture and handicraft industry. Although the Song Dynasty had the most advanced thermal weapon manufacturing technology, its development was slow and did not popularize; The backward military equipment is the basic reason for the Song Dynasty's military passive beating and two dead countries. The above 7 items, after the Song Dynasty, especially the Qing Dynasty, broke through these bottlenecks and restrictions between the Qing Dynasty 1644-1840?

1. Agricultural production technology, the Ming and Qing dynasties surpassed the Song Dynasty, and the crops were particularly prominent.

2. The trend of small agricultural tools, the Ming and Qing dynasties have become more and more intense. In the Song and Yuan dynasties, large -scale agricultural tools used in the invention of the Song and Yuan dynasties are rare or not.

3. The problem of backward agricultural production in the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River, although the Ming and Qing Dynasties have improved, they still need South Grain to transport.

4. Mining drainage and ventilation bottlenecks have not made a breakthrough in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. 5. Lack of metal machinery problems, not only did not break through in the Ming and Qing Dynasties, but the composite machinery "Water Transportation Elephant" invented by the invented metal and wood invented by the Song Dynasty was obscured by Ming and Qing Dynasties.

6. The glass industry has just improved slightly.

7. Thermal weapon manufacturing technology has a new breakthrough compared to the Song Dynasty. In the Yuan Dynasty, the metal fire was invented, but in the Ming Dynasty, it greatly lagged behind the European "Bird", "Ferlang machine cannon" and "red cannon".

The Qing Dynasty stagnated because of political reasons. But overall, Yuan Ming and Qing hot weapons surpassed the Song Dynasty.

Seven bottlenecks restricting the development of productivity in the Song Dynasty, only the two of the agricultural production technology and thermal weapon in the Ming and Qing dynasties had significantly breakthroughs, and the other five of the five were not new. The overall development of science and technology has obviously stagnated in the Ming and Qing Dynasties, and has lost the booming momentum of the booming development of the Song Dynasty. During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, due to the introduction of corn, sweet potato (sweet potato), peanuts, peppers, tobacco and other crops from foreign countries, the overall agricultural industrial production technology and production objects have greatly developed and improved compared to the Song Dynasty. Technology has not improved significantly.

Modern countries to observe the development of socio -economic and productive forces, usually depending on GDP (GDP) and GDP per capita. Due to the shortage of ancient data, it is very difficult to use this indicator. The most reliable is observation and comparative production tools.

Look at the agricultural gear first. Yang Kuan pointed out: Ancient Chinese iron farmers had three important reforms: during the Qin and Han dynasties of the Warring States Period, it gradually promoted the use of tough cast iron agricultural tools (except plowing and plowing walls with white mouth iron casting). During the Tang and Song dynasties, the use of steel blade cooked iron agricultural tools was gradually promoted. "Create a plowing tool on the plowing plow, and iron -raids and plows appear in hand -made farming." The third time in the Ming and Qing dynasties, the use of "scratching" agricultural tools. However, during the Ming and Qing Dynasties, "the reform of this iron agriculturalware was obviously not as important as the last two times, because the functional effect of rubbing the raw iron agriculturalware was not better than the steel blade cooked iron agricultural tools, but the method was simple, the cost was low, and it was easy to promote and used; Moreover, the scope of reform is small, limited to small iron agricultural tools ... "In short, the Ming and Qing iron farm tools have improved than the Tang and Song dynasties, but the importance is not much. Li Genzheng pointed out: Ancient Chinese agricultural tools have developed to the "peak" of the Song and Yuan dynasties; "Ming and Qing Dynasties only improved on this basis ... basically the farm tools of the Song and Yuan dynasties ... and even Wang Yan's" Agricultural Book "had long been long ago. Some large -scale high -efficiency agricultural tools recorded in the Ming and Qing dynasties are rare. Due to the insufficient beef power, some places have returned to people to cultivate. "Zeng Xiongsheng pointed out:" Jiang Dongli is mainly used in the Tang and Song dynasties, and iron clips are mainly used in the Ming and Qing dynasties ... … Iron -up is an important evidence for the stagnation of agricultural productivity in the Ming and Qing dynasties. "The efficiency of reclamation and farming of animal power and manpower is about 1: 10. The transformation from cattle farming to human cultivation is a big retrogression.

The academic community has a lot of research on the output of ancient Chinese grain acres. It is generally believed that the output of food acres in the Ming and Qing Dynasties is higher than the Song Dynasty. This is roughly correct. It is mainly due to the introduction of high -yield crops such as corn and sweet potatoes in the late Ming Dynasty, and the increase in fertilizer and human investment. However, because of the stagnation of agricultural tools, even the rise of the population, and the increase in population, in the middle of the Qing Dynasty, the per capita grain productivity decreased significantly, and the dilemma of long -term food shortage occurred.

Look at handicraft tools. During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, it made new progress in some aspects than Song Yuan, but there was no substantial major breakthrough. Advanced machinery like water -turning large spinning vehicles was rare. What is developing is relatively significant is the "water dragon" of Yunnan copper ore drainage, the installation equipment of the smelting furnace and Foshan, Guangdong, dual -pistol boxes, cotton and silk textile processing equipment, Sichuan well salt mining and processing equipment, oil squeezing equipment, etc. However, most of these equipment and tools do not break the barriers to break through manpower drivers and manual operations; a few livestock and hydraulic devices do not surpass the level of Han, Tang, Song and Yuan. In particular, the spinning vehicles that are related to the national economy and people's livelihood are similar to the Song and Yuan dynasties; in the Ming and Qing cotton textile industry, small manpower hand -shaking spinning vehicles are generally used; And hydropower, and the use of manpower is essentially a serious retrogression. Sichuan Jingyan mining and processing equipment and tools have obvious development, but have not been promoted to other regions and industries. In the most basic mining industry, the ore mining tool "stays on a relatively primitive basis for a long time" and "the mining tool has not changed much." "" Heavenly Gong Kai "is a scientific masterpiece, but it can only be regarded as the end of my country's science and technology development. For example, most of the technologies such as mining, smelting, and steel manufacturing recorded in the book are mostly created by the people before. Creation is very small. "The long -term drainage bottleneck that has not made breakthroughs for a long time, and the Qing Dynasty seemed to have been broken in the mining industry in Yunnan. This was recorded in detail in the" South Yunnan Mining Factory "in the Qing Dynasty. The unheard of deep -mine drainage tool "Water Dragon" is indeed new inventions and new breakthroughs. However, it can be seen that the manual operators of each "water dragon" need 6 people, and a total of more than 1,000 people are needed. The cost is high, it is difficult to sustain, and the drainage tools are actually no substantial breakthrough.

In short, from the perspective of the total population and total industrial and agricultural output, the Ming and Qing Dynasties did surpass the Song Dynasty. However, from the perspective of more fundamental and more important science and technology and production tools, the productivity of the Song Dynasty has developed to the peak of ancient China; the Ming and Qing dynasties and the Song Dynasty were roughly the same, but in several key areas (scientific and technological innovation, cattle farming, and water to large spinning cars (scientific and technological innovation, cattle farming, and water to large spinning cars 2. Per capita per mu) Round backward.

Conclusion

The productivity and overall social and economic development level of the Song Dynasty exceeded the previous generation, which is unquestionable. Compared with the Qing Dynasty, who is the highest peak, there is controversy in the academic world. This article believes that the total productivity of the Qing Dynasty must exceed the Song Dynasty. However, because the production tools did not make a major breakthrough, the important production tools turned backwards, and the population increased, resulting in a decline in per capita productivity, and the quality of productivity development lags behind the Song Dynasty. This situation of total development and "not developing" or even reflux is particularly typical in the Qing Dynasty agriculture. Therefore, the highest peak of the development of ancient Chinese productivity should be the Song Dynasty. In the early days of world history, the earliest metal processing smelting technology appeared in the regions of Central Asia and Mediterranean. From Shang and Zhou Sui and Tang dynasties, China's metal technology level has its own strengths and difficulties compared with these regions. China overall technology is high, and the overall level of socio -economic development is difficult to distinguish. By the Song and Yuan Dynasties, China's socio -economic development became the world's most advanced developed regions at that time. It was the highest peak in the world. Silk fabrics, tea, porcelain, books, water transportation elephants, and hot weapons were among the best. The middle of the Ming Dynasty began to lag behind Europe, and the gap between the Qing Dynasty expanded sharply, which was the most prominent in technology and industry. Compared with the stagnation of the Song and Yuan dynasties, the backwardness of Europe, the rise of Europe, and the "big diversion" of Eastern and Western sides, there are many reasons, but the most important thing is the speed and level of productivity development. The differences in natural environment and politics, thought, religion and other aspects are of course important, but after all, it is the second and third place.

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